1729–1734: African Identities
Samba Bambara’s: Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992), 107.
Marie-Joseph Angélique: Ibid., 100–101; Afua Cooper, The Hanging of Angélique: The Untold Story of Canadian Slavery and the Burning of Old Montréal (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007), 14–22.
New York had the largest: Thelma Foote, Black and White Manhattan: The History of Racial Formation in Colonial New York City (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 69–70; Ira Berlin and Leslie M. Harris, eds., Slavery in New York (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 8, 60–71.
Among the many ethnolinguistic: Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 55–79.
“sickly” and “melancholy” “refuse”: Lorena Walsh, From Calabar to Carter’s Grove: The History of a Virginia Slave Community (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 2001), 76, 79; Douglas Chambers, “ ‘My own Nation’: Igbo Exiles in the Diaspora,” in David Eltis and David Richardson, eds., Routes to Slavery: Direction, Ethnicity, and Mortality in the Atlantic Slave Trade (London: Frank Cass & Co Ltd, 1997), 83–84; Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, “The Clustering of Igbo in the Americas,” in Toyin Falola and Raphael Chijioke Njoku, eds., Igbo in the Atlantic World: African Origins and Diasporic Destinations (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2016), 149–53.
1734–1739: From Fort Mose to Soul City
“Spanish bureaucrats”: Jane Landers, “Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose: A Free Black Town in Spanish Colonial Florida,” in A Question of Manhood: A Reader in U.S. Black Men’s History and Masculinity, ed. Darlene Clark Hine and Earnestine Jenkins (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 1:92.
“organized, governed”: Damien Cave, “In a Town Apart, the Pride and Trials of Black Life,” New York Times, September 28, 2008.
“Spanish support”: Landers, “Gracia Real,” 106.
1739–1744: The Stono Rebellion
home to a Black majority: Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 Through the Stono Rebellion (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 131.
“Carolina looks more”: Samuel Dyssli to family in Switzerland, December 3, 1737, in South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 23, no. 3 (1922): 90.
free any enslaved person: Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998), 73.
about twenty Black rebels: Mark M. Smith, Stono: Documenting and Interpreting a Southern Slave Revolt (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005), xiii.
At least twenty-three: Ibid., 83.
“Having found rum”: Alexander Hewatt, An Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia (London, 1779), 2:34.
“I sho’ does come”: George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography: Supplement, series 1, vol. 11, North Carolina and South Carolina Narratives (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1977), 56.
1744–1749: Lucy Terry Prince
“over the Green Mountains”: Sidney Kaplan and Emma Nogrady Kaplan, The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution, rev. ed. (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1989), 241.
alongside Phillis Wheatley: David R. Proper, “Lucy Terry Prince: ‘Singer of History,’ ” Contributions in Black Studies 9, no. 15 (1992).
“King George’s War”: Catherine Adams and Elizabeth H. Pleck, Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 64.
“wrote” the poem: Frances Smith Foster and Kim D. Green, “Ports of Call, Pulpits of Consultation: Rethinking the Origins of African American Literature,” in A Companion to African American Literature, ed. Gene Andrew Jarrett (Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell, 2010), 50.
Baptized in 1735: “Lucy Terry,” in Margaret Busby, ed., Daughters of Africa (London: Jonathan Cape, 1992), 16–17.
“three divisions”: George Sheldon, Negro Slavery in Old Deerfield (Boston, 1893), 56.
“a place of resort”: Ibid.
“where folks were”: Ibid., 50.
litigated before the Vermont supreme court: Barbara M. Wertheimer, We Were There: The Story of Working Women in America (New York: Pantheon Books), 35–36.
“in this remarkable woman”: Quoted in Kaplan and Kaplan, Black Presence, 241.
“know-your-place aggression”: See, for instance, Koritha Mitchell, “Identifying White Mediocrity and Know-Your-Place Aggression: A Form of Self-Care,” African American Review 51, no. 4 (2018): 253–62.
bell hooks: See bell hooks, Ain’t I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism (Abington-on-Thames, UK: Routledge, 2014).
1749–1754: Race and the Enlightenment
race became an object: Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, ed., Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Dorothy Roberts, Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, and Big Business Re-create Race in the Twenty-First Century (New York: New Press, 2011), 28–32.
scientists pointed to nature: Terence Keel, Divine Variations: How Christian Thought Became Racial Science (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018).
“supernaturalist to scientific”: Joseph L. Graves, “Great Is Their Sin: Biological Determinism in the Age of Genomics,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 661, no. 1 (2015): 24–50.
Benjamin Franklin, one: Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America (New York: Nation Books, 2016), 80.
innately and immutably: Ibid., 84–85; Roberts, Fatal Invention, 30, 83–84.
“the real distinctions”: Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. David Waldstreicher (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 176–77.
a religious treatise: Kendi, Stamped, 88; John Woolman, Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes. Recommended to the Professor of Christianity of Every Denomination (Philadelphia: James Chattin, 1754).